Each step of the process from survey to patent has left a record that is potentially helpful to the genealogist:

SURVEY & SURVEY FIELD NOTES: Prior to the land auction being held, a survey was necessary. As each tract of land was sold the purchaser's name was entered on the correct area on the survey. These surveys are usually found at the GLO and most have been microfilmed. Some are found in the State's Land Office and some in the National Archives. The use of the survey for a genealogist is that you can readily see the neighbors who surround an ancestor's tract of land. The surveyor not only surveyed the land, he also made notes of any people already living in the area, sometimes including crude drawings of houses and outbuildings. Sometimes simple notes giving the owner's name, amount of property and a legal description of the owned land. If field survey notes survive they are usually found in the state's land office or sometimes the state's archives.

TRACT BOOKS: These books were set up by Section, Township and Range. As each piece of land was sold the purchaser's name was entered on the page that corresponded to the parcel of land purchased. These tract books are found at the GLO and many have been microfilmed. Some are at the State's land office or state archives or local county courthouses. Local Tract books are still kept at most courthouses. The books contain the "chain" of ownership, listing the name, book and page number of each owner, one after the other across a large ledger page. In State Land states tract books are much harder to find, especially on older deeds. Always ASK the courthouse if they have Tract Books and be prepared to describe them since not all courthouses in non-public domain states call them "Tract Books". Land ownership is an on-going thing and each time a piece of property changes hands the title attorneys must certify that the title is "free and clear" and that each section in the chain of ownership is accounted for, from the seller back to the first deed issued. No attorney wants to research a title chain from scratch every time a piece of property is sold, so even in State Land states there are records of this chain of ownership that can be consulted by title attorneys. This is the book you are looking for.

In public-domain states each piece of property has an "abstract". This is a bound set of papers that contains a copy of each deed that transfers the property, from the first deed issued to the current owner. If a piece of property is mortgaged, the abstract is found in an abstract office. If the property is free and clear the abstract is given to the property owner. Most abstract companies WON'T make the abstract available to a casual researcher and it's sometimes difficult to locate the correct abstract office. However, some abstract companies WILL let you come to their office and review the abstract. The local courthouse can tell you the abstract companies that are located in their area. It never hurts to ask!

TOWNSHIP PLATS: After many years of being written on and over, the plots are often rather illegible and the tract books are a better finding tool for the legal description. The plats have been microfilmed and are usually deposited at the same locations as the tract books

PATENTS: These are the "first entry of ownership" or the 1st private ownership of what was public land. From the Colonial Period to the early 20th Century over 5 million federal grants have transferred land to individuals in various parts of the US. The original 13 colonies, Texas and Hawaii issued several million more. To secure a patent a person either had to pay cash for the land or furnish proof of why the land should be granted to them. If the person was getting a patent for any reason other than paying cash, an application "Land Entry Case File" was made for all public-domain states. For state land states there are documents that support the reason for issuing a grant.

These grants are essential for searching a Colonial ancestor, especially frontier families. The application files give more genealogical details than the actual patents. Post-Civil War homestead files are rich in personal data, often including naturalization papers. (Before Mar 2, 1988, all original patents were actually signed by the President of the United States; after that, designated officials signed in his behalf).

The patents for public-domain states are recorded in chronological order by state and then by land district. A list of where to locate patents / grants, by state. To order a patent from any of the BLM Offices you MUST have the patent number, the county (land district) and state. For patents in the State Land states you must research the state archives or state land office.

The Patent/Warrant number for public-domain states is found in the indexes of the BLM's new CDs. The number is also found on the deed recorded in the local Deed Books. All Patents/Warrants for the Eastern States are now on-line and can be viewed or downloaded from the BLM site. Remember that you MUST have the Patent/Warrant number from the BLM to access the Patent/Warrant information and Land Entry Case Files.

Once you have secured this Patent / Warrant number and received a copy of the Patent / Warrant (or downloaded it from the BLM Eastern States web site) you can then order the entire land entry case file. If you find on the Patent that your ancestor made a "cash purchase" the land entry case file will contain nothing except a copy of the cash purchase receipt. If the patent/warrant was issued for military service, homesteading, or any other type of service you have hit pay dirt!

LAND ENTRY CASE FILE: These are the files that are most sought after by genealogists. When a man purchased land in any public-domain state for anything other than cash, an "application file" was prepared. In this file was placed all of the supporting documentation as to WHY this individual should receive land without paying cash for it. The files contain all kinds of information on the man since the local land office official wasn't going to hand over land to just anyone who said he didn't have to pay for it. These files contain such items as the purchaser's declaration of intent to purchase a piece of property, supporting documents from friends, neighbors and family certifying the man is who he says he is, bounty land warrants (if a warrant was used in lieu of cash) and sometimes copies of naturalization papers.

The Local Land Office sent all of these Land Entry Case files to the GLO who later transferred them to The National Archives Building, 700 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20408-0001. The files are arranged by acts, state, land district, and thereunder numerically. Which means that you cannot get a copy of a land entry case file without knowing which "Act" of Congress the patent was issued under, the patent number, county (land district) and state. The Patent itself contains this information. Securing a patent number only is not sufficient to order Land Entry Case files, you must have the information from the actual patent.

MILITARY BOUNTY LAND: To get a federal bounty land warrant it was necessary under any act from 1788-1855 for the soldier or heirs to apply. The government gave no warrants for any military service after 1855, but Union veterans received special homestead rights. Warrant applications are found in RECORD GROUP #15, Military Service Records in the National Archives.

Genealogists find bounty-land records especially attractive because they serve the dual roll of locating persons in time and place and of proving military service. One thing that each researcher should remember is that the act of 1788 stipulated that warrants were assignable, meaning the solider could sell his warrant. This created an instant market in bounty warrants and allowed land speculators to accumulate large quantities of warrants and land. Since few soldiers actually used their warrants to patent land, patents and land-entry case files are much less valuable than the warrants and the warrant applications in locating a soldier's military service.

How To Use Land Records Deed Books and Indexes Now that we have learned a few things about how land ownership came about and have some clues as to where we can obtain additional information let's look at the steps necessary to use land records most successfully.

The one mistake that most beginning genealogist make is to ignore or be ignorant of the changes of county or state boundary lines. Before embarking on a search of land records knowledge of the correct county for the time frame being searched is absolutely necessary.

Everton Publishers publishes a book called The Handybook for Genealogists. This book contains a map of each state laid out by counties, a list of counties, a list of courthouses (addresses, the records they hold) and other general information.

The primary value of this book is the information on the dates the counties were formed and the counties they were formed from. Your ancestor might be found on the census as living in xx county, but the deed might well have been recorded in a different county.

Maybe because the courthouse in another county was closer or because when he recorded the deed to his property, the property was located in a county that later got split into different counties.

William Dollarhide has a wonderful set of maps, by state, that show the location of each county in 10 year increments (to match the census).

There are many published books that contain abstracts of Deed Records. Begin your search by checking the LDS indexes to see if such a book has been published for the county you are searching. You can then order the microfilm of the book.

If you do not have access to a local LDS FHC (Church of the Latter Day Saints, Family History Center) then contact the local Historical or Genealogy Society in the county you are researching.

Ask them if they know of any such books available and their location. Some of these books can be ordered through inter-library loan although most cannot.

If the book(s) cannot be ordered through inter library loan then you can write to the location where the book is found and ask for copies of the pages that contain reference to your ancestor.

This is the least best way because of the variants in spelling. And, remember that deed abstracts usually only contain the name of the buyer and seller and, for State Land states, the names of any neighbors or creeks, roads, etc.

If you find your ancestor listed in an abstract you can then order a copy of the deed from the local courthouse. (Be sure to include the book and page number). However, by ordering only the ONE deed for your ancestor you will be missing a lot of critical information of neighbors or deeds with spelling variations.

Once you have combed the printed abstracts the next step is to search the actual microfilmed copies of the deed books. Most beginning genealogists don't want to hear that the VERY BEST way to locate deeds is to search the microfilm copies of the actual deed books.

You will recognize your ancestors name, other family members and neighbors better than anyone else can. Most deed books have been microfilmed and can be ordered through your local LDS History Center.

As land was sold, traded or passed by inheritance the transfer was recorded in a county courthouse in large bound books. Deeds were recorded in the Deed Books in the order they were received at the courthouse. This is still the way Deeds are recorded today. It can take hours to look at each and every deed found in the Deed Books.

To facilitate the finding of a deed each Deed Book contains Indexes. These indexes are usually found at the front of the book and there is a page for each letter of the alphabet.

There are two indexes maintained, one for the grantor (seller) and one for the grantee (buyer).

The names on these pages are not in alphabetical order, but rather are entered when a deed is recorded. If your ancestor's name began with an H then all entries on the H page must be searched.

The Index is an Index to ONLY that Deed Book. Each Deed Book has its own index. As we all know indexes are subject to human error so if you feel sure that your ancestor was in a given area and cannot be found in the index, you will have to look at each deed (and don't forget to check for boundary changes - you might be checking the wrong county). Fortunately for us the LDS Family History Centers can supply us with microfilmed records of the deed books of most counties.

While we are on the subject of Indexes - remember that the county clerks of the day were not chosen for their academic skills they were chosen because of their connection to the local politicians of the day.

The handwriting, spelling and grammar of many county clerks was atrocious. They wrote the name of your ancestor as it sounded to them. (An example in my own family is the name AMBROSE. My father-in-law pronounced the name AMBERS. If I had not heard him mispronounce this name I would never have thought to check for that spelling and would have had a much harder time finding my ancestors).

I have found county records where a name was spelled several different ways within the same document. About the only time you can be sure the spelling of the name is the person's actual name is the signature on the deed.

The county clerks did, in most instances, copy the signature exactly as it was written. Another thing to remember when checking old deeds and indexes is the vowels (a,e,i,o,u) were used interchangeably.

Make a list of the name you are researching and change the vowels until you have a list of all possible combinations and then check the indexes for every conceivable spelling.

Deeds and Tract Books After locating the book and page number of a deed in the Index a copy of the actual deed should be made.

You will find yourself reading and re-reading these old deeds as you discover more information about your family. As I mentioned above the handwriting of many of the county clerks is more than terrible.

Make yourself a "cheat sheet". Copy / trace words or letters that you KNOW the meaning of. For example you can use the name of the state (or county) to determine how the clerk forms the letters found within the name. This will help you to decipher words in the deed that contain those letters. (There is a web site that offers a lesson in reading old handwriting. )

As with all legal documents there is a semblance of order to they way they are worded. Usually they followed this order:

The name of the State and County and date I xx (name of seller) of the county of ___ and State of _____ have this day bargained and sold to xx (name of buyer) if the buyer resides in a different county or state their location is usually stated for the consideration of $___ (if a warrant is used to pay for the land the type of warrant is noted and the warrant number) to me in hand paid a certain tract or parcel of land situated in said county and state bounded as follows: Then the legal description of the property is stated. In public domain states the description will include the acreage being sold, the section, township, range and meridian. If a State Land state the description will contain neighbors names and all kinds of information. To have and to hold the said land within described and all Appurtenances (old word for improvement - spelled a hundred different way in old deeds) belonging thereto, to the said ____ (buyer) and every part of the same. I do covenant that I am lawfully seized of said land and have a good right to convey it and that the same is unencumbered. I do further agree to warrant and defend the title to the same ___ (buyer) his heirs forever against the lawful claims of all persons whatsoever. Witness my hand and seal this ___ day of ____ of ____. The signature of the seller and the witnesses follow. The next section is by the court clerk.

If the seller is married his wife must be examined in private and state that she agrees to the sale. If the seller is unmarried then the next section will be information of the court clerk about the recording of the deed.

Even the oldest deeds follow the above outline. If the deed is a security deed (a deed given as a guarantee of payment of a debt) the debt is described, if the deed transfers ownership of a slave the information about the slave will be in the place of the legal description of the land.

Remember that deeds transferred ownership of things other than land. Once you have located deeds and deciphered the handwriting of the county clerk to determine the legal description, check the deed description in the Tract Book, if one is available.

Gather the information of the owners before and after your ancestor. These deeds may contain information on inheritance, may name family members, show a division of land between heirs or if the land is sold at a minimal price it may be a giving of land to a child at their marriage.

In State Land states it is harder to track the "chain" of ownership, but remember that land and title insurance attorneys must show clear title to a piece of land for the closings that happen everyday. They have no time to spend researching each deed back to "first title" every time a piece of land is resold. Usually each courthouse has some type of record showing the chain of ownership.

Ask the courthouse employees what type of record this is and where it is located. Go as far back as possible, you have no way of knowing who may be related to whom.

Since most old deeds are very hard to read they must be studied and restudied. You cannot gleam every piece of information by a casual reading of the deed on the microfilm machine. Collect copies of the deeds for neighbors so that you can study them at your leisure. Once again let me remind you that most neighbors were family or friends that moved together. And spouses were chosen from neighbors or members of the church or town.

You need to compile names of neighbors to help locate your ancestors in a time and place or to find the elusive name of a female ancestor.

For many years there was no Federal Income Tax, rather people were taxed on land, property, slaves, etc. Land Tax Lists should always be searched. If a man was taxed for land, you know he had ownership to the land. If you could not located a Deed and yet the man is being taxed, it's necessary to start over and look again for a Deed. Check the surrounding counties if necessary.

Where Were They Really? Where's that Today? Armed with the legal description of the property and the names of neighbors we want to know where the place our ancestor lived was or is today. Most of us who research our family history want to see and walk on the property where our ancestors lived.

Curious? Nosey? Or maybe we want to see what our ancestors saw everyday. The more practical need is to locate old churches, cemeteries or old newspaper offices. Most family researchers feel the need to fill out the bare bones outline of name and vital statistics.

It helps to be able to establish the physical location of your ancestor's property and his neighbors, both in the time in which your ancestor lived and today.

This can be done using graph paper, a computer program or simply rough sketches on a piece of paper. By seeing the layout of the land and who borders which side of the property it is sometimes possible to tie together many loose orphans.

The United States Genealogical Service (USGS) sells maps of many different sizes for each state. The 1:24,000 maps includes all natural features of the land including churches, cemeteries, etc.

This size map is the right size to locate the physical location of your ancestor's property. By overlaying these maps with tracing paper you can plot your ancestor's property and see where that property is today.

For an excellent step by step case study for plotting an ancestor's land see Richard Allen Pence's great example. Since these maps reflect churches and cemeteries, many of them old, they provide a lead to other records. Armed with the information on churches and cemeteries your next step is to begin searching for those records.

The farther back in time you travel the smaller the communities your ancestor lived in. His neighbors were many times his family and a person usually chose a spouse from those people they saw in town or at church.

It is important to look at neighbors and plotting your ancestor's land is an excellent way to gain a view of his neighbors. Once your ancestor's property is located on a "today" map most family researchers itch to visit the site. I know I do.

Look I found A Warrant Number !!!

How lucky you are if your ancestor's deed says the land was paid for with a warrant. Usually the warrant number and type of warrant is listed on the deed. If no number is listed check the BLM records and order a copy of the patent or warrant (which are now on line). With the warrant number in hand (you have to have the number) you can then order the land entry case files from the Archives.

Many of the bounty land warrant and homestead files contain a wealth of family information. One researcher received copies of all of the family pages that had been torn from a Family Bible used to establish the right for a heir to receive a bounty land warrant for a deceased relative.

The Archives will send you copies of 20 pages from the land entry files for a $10.00 fee (this changes so check the price at the National Records Center). If there are more than 20 pages then the clerk at the archives will decide what you "probably" need. The best way is to request copies of ALL pages in the case file.

The Archives will then send you an invoice for the cost of copying all the pages. It takes a little longer but is usually worth the wait. Another thing to remember is that if your ancestor purchased the land for CASH there will be nothing in the case file except one sheet of paper giving the same information as found on the warrant from the BLM.

RECAP The information in deeds provides clues that lead us to other research. Physical location leads us to church and cemetery records. Deeds of Trust leads us to court records for loans or securities.

Division of land leads us to search for wills, probate records or court records for the deceased owner.

Neighbors help us find family and spouses.

Warrants lead us to search for land entry case files or lead to military service records.

Very seldom does a deed leave us with no information on where to go next. I have only touched lightly on Land Records. I strongly suggest that you consult The Source: (see footnote below) for an extensive discussion of Land Records. To date this is the best source of information I have found. I know this essay is lengthy, but knowledge is never gained in "10 easy steps". I wish you the best of luck in your research and I will appreciate any additions, corrections or comments.

Subject: [CARR-L] Virginia County Records Date: Tue, 2 Mar 1999 17:10:04 -0700 From: "Wilcox" jkwilcox@temecula.com Many of you who research the Virginia Carrs might want to check out the Library of Virginia Digital Collections at http://image.vtls.com/. The Court Records is the guide (index) to the Virginia County Court Records and is filmed from the microfilm Reel 461 that many genealogy libraries have. You can order up to 5 rolls of microfilm for up to 4 weeks through your local library using Interlibrary Loan. The Virginia Library does not charge but your local library might charge for the search (I have to pay $1.00 a reel here in California). You order by county and reel numbers. Albemarle County lists 220 reels which covers the will books, marriage bonds, land deeds, court order books, etc. I have been using this service for the last 10 years and am still amazed that many genealogists do not realize they can get these films--they are a valuable primary source for that never-ending search for ancestors. Kathy Wilcox

From: PatNoble@aol.com Date: Mon, 28 Dec 1998 10:36:09 EST Subject: [CARR-L] Carr Books and Genealogylibrary.com We talked about Carr books a few months ago. Genealogylibrary.com, a pay service on Familytreemaker.com, has Carr Family Records, by Edson Carr, and The Carr Family of Duplin County (NC), by James O Carr. Maybe other books on Carr, too. It has wills, marriages, all sorts of things. Cost me about $50 for a year's subscription. They also have monthly rates. Copies of the Carr Family Records book cost about $100, so it might be worthwhile getting a subscription, even if only for a month. FYI. The Carr Family of Duplin County Author: James O. Carr Call Number: CS71.C37x Between 1737 and 1749, Joseph Carr, the original ancestor of the Duplin family, came to Wilmington, North Carolina on a sail vessel and moved fifty miles north, where he settled on "Maxwell Swamp," a branch of the North East River. Hundreds of names included. Bibliographic Information: Carr, James O. The Carr Family of Duplin County. Wilmington Stamp & Printing Co., Wilmington 1939.

From: "Diana Davis" ddavis@logicsouth.com Date: Tue, 16 Feb 1999 08:38:42 -0500 In case you ever wondered why a large number of your ancestors disappeared during a certain period in history, this might help. Epidemics have always had a great influence on people-and thus influencing, as well, the genealogists trying to trace them. Many cases of people disappearing from records can be traced to dying during an epidemic or moving away from the affected area. Some of the major epidemics in the United States are listed below.

1657 Boston: Measles
1687 Boston: Measles
1690 New York: Yellow Fever
1713 Boston: Measles
1729 Boston: Measles
1732-33 Worldwide: Influenza
1738 South Carolina: Smallpox
1739-40 Boston: Measles
1747 Conn, NY, PA & SC: Measles
1759 North America (areas inhabited by white people): Measles
1761 North America & West Indies: Influenza
1772 North America (especially hard in New England): Epidemic (Unknown)
1775-76 Worldwide: Influenza (one of worst flu epidemics)
1788 Philadelphia & NY: Measles
1793 Vermont: Influenza and a "putrid fever"
1793 Virginia: Influenza (killed 500 people in 5 counties in 4 weeks
1793 Philadelphia: Yellow Fever (one of worst)
1783* Delaware (Dover) "extremely fatal" bilious disorder
1793 Pennsylvania (Harrisburg & Middletown) many unexplained deaths
1794 Philadelphia: Yellow Fever
1796-97 Philadelphia: Yellow Fever
1798 Philadelphia: Yellow Fever (One of worst)
1803 New York: Yellow Fever
1820-23 Nationwide "fever" (starts on Schuylkill River, PA & spreads)
1831-32 Nationwide: Asiatic Cholera (brought by English emigrants)
1832 New York & other major cities: Cholera
1837 Philadelphia: Typhus
1841 Nationwide: Yellow Fever (especially severe in South)
1847 New Orleans: Yellow Fever
1847-48 Worldwide: Influenza
1848-49 North America: Cholera
1850 Nationwide: Yellow Fever
1850-51 North America: Influenza
1852 Nationwide: Yellow Fever (New Orleans 8,000 die in summer)
1855 Nationwide (many parts) Yellow Fever
1857-59 Worldwide: Influenza (one of disease's greatest epidemics)
1860-61 Pennsylvania: smallpox
1865-73 Philadelphia, NY, Boston, New Orleans, Baltimore, Memphis & Washington DC: a series of recurring epidemics of Smallpox, Cholera, Typhus, Typhoid, Scarlet Fever & Yellow Fever
1873-75 North America & Europe: Influenza
1878 New Orleans: Yellow Fever (last great epidemic of disease)
1885 Plymouth, PA: Typhoid
1886 Jacksonville, FL: Yellow Fever
1918 Worldwide: Influenza (High point year) More people hospitalized in World War I from influenza than wounds. US Army training camps became death camps - with 80% death rate in some camps.

Finally, these specific instances of cholera were mentioned:

1833 Columbus, Oh
1834 New York City
1849 New York
1851 Coles Co. IL
1851 The Great Plains
1851 Missouri

Some old names for illnesses found in old medical records
or listed as causes of death on old death certificates or in old family bibles.

Ablepsy - Blindness
Ague - Malarial Fever
American plague - Yellow fever
Anasarca - Generalized massive edema
Aphonia - Laryngitis
Aphtha - The infant disease "thrush"
Apoplexy - Paralysis due to stroke
Asphycsia/Asphicsia - Cyanotic and lack of oxygen
Atrophy - Wasting away or diminishing in size.
Bad Blood - Syphilis
Bilious fever - Typhoid, malaria, hepatitis or elevated temperature and bile emesis
Biliousness - Jaundice associated with liver disease
Black plague or death - Bubonic plague
Black fever - Acute infection with high temperature and dark red skin lesions and high mortality rate
Black pox - Black Small pox
Black vomit - Vomiting old black blood due to ulcers or yellow fever
Blackwater fever - Dark urine associated with high temperature
Bladder in throat - Diphtheria (Seen on death certificates)
Blood poisoning - Bacterial infection; septicemia
Bloody flux - Bloody stools
Bloody sweat - Sweating sickness
Bone shave - Sciatica
Brain fever - Meningitis
Breakbone - Dengue fever
Bright's disease - Chronic inflammatory disease of kidneys
Bronze John - Yellow fever
Bule - Boil, tumor or swelling
Cachexy - Malnutrition
Cacogastric - Upset stomach
Cacospysy - Irregular pulse
Caduceus - Subject to falling sickness or epilepsy
Camp fever - Typhus; aka Camp diarrhea
Canine madness - Rabies, hydrophobia
Canker - Ulceration of mouth or lips or herpes simplex
Catalepsy - Seizures / trances
Catarrhal - Nose and throat discharge from cold or allergy
Cerebritis - Inflammation of cerebrum or lead poisoning
Chilblain - Swelling of extremities caused by exposure to cold
Child bed fever - Infection following birth of a child
Chin cough - Whooping cough
Chlorosis - Iron deficiency anemia
Cholera - Acute severe contagious diarrhea with intestinal lining sloughing
Cholera morbus - Characterized by nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, elevated temperature, etc. Could be appendicitis
Cholecystitus - Inflammation of the gall bladder
Cholelithiasis - Gall stones
Chorea - Disease characterized by convulsions, contortions and dancing
Cold plague - Ague which is characterized by chills
Colic - An abdominal pain and cramping
Congestive chills - Malaria
Consumption - Tuberculosis
Congestion - Any collection of fluid in an organ, like the lungs
Congestive chills - Malaria with diarrhea
Congestive fever - Malaria
Corruption - Infection
Coryza - A cold
Costiveness - Constipation
Cramp colic - Appendicitis
Crop sickness - Overextended stomach
Croup - Laryngitis, diphtheria, or strep throat
Cyanosis - Dark skin color from lack of oxygen in blood
Cynanche - Diseases of throat
Cystitis - Inflammation of the bladder
Day fever - Fever lasting one day; sweating sickness
Debility - Lack of movement or staying in bed
Decrepitude - Feebleness due to old age
Delirium tremens - Hallucinations due to alcoholism
Dengue - Infectious fever endemic to East Africa
Dentition - Cutting of teeth
Deplumation - Tumor of the eyelids which causes hair loss
Diary fever - A fever that lasts one day
Diptheria - Contagious disease of the throat
Distemper - Usually animal disease with malaise, discharge from nose and throat, anorexia
Dock fever - Yellow fever
Dropsy - Edema (swelling), often caused by kidney or heart disease
Dropsy of the Brain - Encephalitis
Dry Bellyache - Lead poisoning
Dyscrasy - An abnormal body condition
Dysentery - Inflammation of colon with frequent passage of mucous and blood
Dysorexy - Reduced appetite
Dyspepsia - Indigestion and heartburn. Heart attack symptoms
Dysury - Difficulty in urination
Eclampsy - Symptoms of epilepsy, convulsions during labor
Ecstasy - A form of catalepsy characterized by loss of reason
Edema - Nephrosis; swelling of tissues
Edema of lungs - Congestive heart failure, a form of dropsy
Eel thing - Erysipelas
Elephantiasis - A form of leprosy
Encephalitis - Swelling of brain; aka sleeping sickness
Enteric fever - Typhoid fever
Enterocolitis - Inflammation of the intestines
Enteritis - Inflations of the bowels
Epitaxis - Nose bleed
Erysipelas - Contagious skin disease, due to Streptococci with vesicular and bulbous lesions
Extravasted blood - Rupture of a blood vessel
Falling sickness - Epilepsy
Fatty Liver - Cirrhosis of liver
Fits - Sudden attack or seizure of muscle activity
Flux - An excessive flow or discharge of fluid like hemorrhage or diarrhea
Flux of humour - Circulation
French pox - Syphilis
Gathering - A collection of pus
Glandular fever - Mononucleosis
Great pox - Syphilis
Green fever / sickness - Anemia
Grippe/grip - Influenza like symptoms
Grocer's itch - Skin disease caused by mites in sugar or flour
Heart sickness - Condition caused by loss of salt from body
Heat stroke - Body temperature elevates because of surrounding environment temperature and body does not perspire to reduce temperature. Coma and death result if not reversed
Hectical complaint - Recurrent fever
Hematemesis - Vomiting blood
Hematuria - Bloody urine
Hemiplegy - Paralysis of one side of body
Hip gout - Osteomylitis
Horrors - Delirium tremens
Hydrocephalus - Enlarged head, water on the brain
Hydropericardium - Heart dropsy
Hydrophobia - Rabies
Hydrothroax - Dropsy in chest
Hypertrophic - Enlargement of organ, like the heart
Impetigo - Contagious skin disease characterized by pustules
Inanition - Physical condition resulting from lack of food
Infantile paralysis - Polio
Intestinal colic - Abdominal pain due to improper diet
Jail fever - Typhus
Jaundice - Condition caused by blockage of intestines
King's evil - Tuberculosis of neck and lymph glands
Kruchhusten - Whooping cough
Lagrippe - Influenza
Lockjaw - Tetanus or infectious disease affecting the muscles of the neck and jaw. Untreated, it is fatal in 8 days
Long sickness - Tuberculosis
Lues disease - Syphilis
Lues venera - Venereal disease
Lumbago - Back pain
Lung fever - Pneumonia
Lung sickness - Tuberculosis
Lying in - Time of delivery of infant
Malignant sore throat - Diphtheria
Mania - Insanity
Marasmus - Progressive wasting away of body, like malnutrition
Membranous Croup - Diphtheria
Meningitis - Inflations of brain or spinal cord
Metritis - Inflammation of uterus or purulent vaginal discharge
Miasma - Poisonous vapors thought to infect the air
Milk fever - Disease from drinking contaminated milk, like undulant fever or brucellosis
Milk leg - Post partum thrombophlebitis
Milk sickness - Disease from milk of cattle which had eaten poisonous weeds
Mormal - Gangrene
Morphew - Scurvy blisters on the body
Mortification - Gangrene of necrotic tissue
Myelitis - Inflammation of the spine
Myocarditis - Inflammation of heart muscles
Necrosis - Mortification of bones or tissue
Nephrosis - Kidney degeneration
Nepritis - Inflammation of kidneys
Nervous prostration - Extreme exhaustion from inability to control physical and mental activities
Neuralgia - Described as discomfort, such as "Headache" was neuralgia in head
Nostalgia - Homesickness
Palsy - Paralysis or uncontrolled movement of controlled muscles. It was listed as "Cause of death"
Paroxysm - Convulsion
Pemphigus - Skin disease of watery blisters
Pericarditis - Inflammation of heart
Peripneumonia - Inflammation of lungs
Peritonotis - Inflammation of abdominal area
Petechial Fever - Fever characterized by skin spotting
Puerperal exhaustion - Death due to child birth
Phthiriasis - Lice infestation
Phthisis - Chronic wasting away or a name for tuberculosis
Plague - An acute febrile highly infectious disease with a high fatality rate
Pleurisy - Any pain in the chest area with each breath
Podagra - Gout
Poliomyelitis - PolioPotter's asthma - Fibroid pthisis
Pott's disease - Tuberculosis of spine
Puerperal exhaustion - Death due to childbirth
Puerperal fever - Elevated temperature after giving birth to an infant
Puking fever - Milk sickness
Putrid fever - Diphtheria.
Quinsy - Tonsillitis.
Remitting fever - Malaria
Rheumatism - Any disorder associated with pain in joints
Rickets - Disease of skeletal system
Rose cold - Hay fever or nasal symptoms of an allergy
Rotanny fever - (Child's disease) ???
Rubeola - German measles
Sanguineous crust - Scab
Scarlatina - Scarlet fever
Scarlet fever - A disease characterized by red rash
Scarlet rash - Roseola
Sciatica - Rheumatism in the hips
Scirrhus - Cancerous tumors
Scotomy - Dizziness, nausea and dimness of sight
Scrivener's palsy - Writer's cramp
Screws - Rheumatism
Scrofula - Tuberculosis of neck lymph glands. Progresses slowly with abscesses and pistulas develop. Young person's disease
Scrumpox - Skin disease, impetigo
Scurvy - Lack of vitamin C. Symptoms of weakness, spongy gums and hemorrhages under skin
Septicemia - Blood poisoning
Shakes - Delirium tremens
Shaking - Chills, ague
Shingles - Viral disease with skin blisters
Ship fever - Typhus
Siriasis - Inflammation of the brain due to sun exposure
Sloes - Milk sickness
Small pox - Contagious disease with fever and blisters
Softening of brain - Result of stroke or hemorrhage in the brain, with an end result of the tissue softening in that area
Sore throat distemper - Diphtheria or quinsy
Spanish influenza - Epidemic influenza
Spasms - Sudden involuntary contraction of muscle or group of muscles, like a convulsion
Spina bifida - Deformity of spine
Spotted fever - Either typhus or meningitis
Sprue - Tropical disease characterized by intestinal disorders and sore throat
St. Anthony's fire - Also erysipelas, but named so because of affected skin areas are bright red in appearance
St. Vitas dance - Ceaseless occurrence of rapid complex jerking movements performed involuntary
Stomatitis - Inflammation of the mouth
Stranger's fever - Yellow fever
Strangery - Rupture
Sudor anglicus - Sweating sickness
Summer complaint - Diarrhea, usually in infants caused by spoiled milk
Sunstroke - Uncontrolled elevation of body temperature due to environment heat. Lack of sodium in the body is a predisposing cause
Swamp sickness - Could be malaria, typhoid or encephalitis
Sweating sickness - Infectious and fatal disease common to UK in 15th century
Tetanus - Infectious fever characterized by high fever, headache and dizziness
Thrombosis - Blood clot inside blood vessel
Thrush - Childhood disease characterized by spots on mouth, lips and throat
Tick fever - Rocky mountain spotted fever
Toxemia of pregnancy - Eclampsia
Trench mouth - Painful ulcers found along gum line, Caused by poor nutrition and poor hygiene
Tussis convulsiva - Whooping cough
Typhus - Infectious fever characterized high fever, headache, and dizziness
Variola - Smallpox
Venesection - Bleeding
Viper's dance - St. Vitus Dance
Water on brain - Enlarged head
White swelling - Tuberculosis of the bone
Winter fever - Pneumonia
Womb fever - Infection of the uterus.
Worm fit - Convulsions associated with teething, worms, elevated temperature or diarrhea
Yellowjacket - Yellow fever.

Subject: Great new source, CARR, ETC> Date: Wed, 10 Mar 1999 08:37:59 -0500 From: "Jean Stutz" stutz@gsosun1.gso.uri.edu To: CARR-L@rootsweb.com Hi Everyone! Saw the discussion regarding Caleb Carr, Job Carr, etc. I just received two new books last Friday that are a great source for early ancestors. I have been reading these books nonstop since I received them! Both books contain many references to Carrs as well as many other New England persons. The books are: Rhode Island General Court of Trials 1671-1704 and Gleanings from Newport Court Files 1659-1783. The first was transcribed and the second abstracted by Jane Fletcher Fiske. There is so much information in these books, not only about Rhode Island people, but MA, CT, NY, the West Indies and some from several other colonies. The books give occupations, relationships (sometimes whole families), ages, locations and many other tidbits. The history of colonial life itself is worth purchasing the books. I would heartily recommend these books, especially the Gleanings..to anyone doing New England research! I don't know the price of each book since I bought both but interested persons can reach Mrs. Fiske at: jfiske@earthlink.net. Hope this helps someone! Jean

The New England Historical Genealogical Society listing of genealogies & histories (index "C") - Carr CARR, Edson I. The Carr Family Records. Embracing the Record of the First Families who Settled in America and Their Descendants, with Many Branches who Came to this Country at a Later date. (1894). CS/71/C312/1894 CARR, Watson, W. L. The House of Carr. A Historical Sketch of the Carr Family from 1450 to 1926. (1926). CS/71/C312/1926 CARR, Arthur A. The Carr book. Sketches of the lives of many of the descendants of Robert and Caleb Carr, whose arival on this continent in 1635 began the American story of our family. (1947). CS/71/C312/1947 BENT, RALPH D., "Four Families", 1988 Library of Congress #88-92679 The genealogy of Ralph D. Bent, and immediate ancestors of his parents: CARR, BENT, MASON & WETHERILL. The Kerr Clan of New Jersey ; Beginning with Walter Ker of Freehold and including Other Related Lines;By William C. Armstrong; The Shawver Publishing Co., Morrison, IL;1931; Reprint 1980 by The Bookmark; PO Box 74; Knightstown, IN 46148 Ancestors and Descendents of Amasa Carr, Charles W. Carr, published in 1981. The book contains the direct line back from Amasa who descends from Robert of the Caleb and Robert, sons of Benjamin. It goes forward from Amasa and contains all the descendants that Charles W. Carr could locate. Bruce, Maupin, Carr and Some Related Families by Paul R. Bostic. Privately published by Mr. Bostic in 1995. It has the Benjamin Carr, Martha Hardington familiar to most Carr researchers. It says that their son, Andrew, had a son, John. The are quite a few descendents for this John Carr. Rhode Island General Court of Trials 1671-1704 and Gleanings from Newport Court Files 1659-1783. The first was transcribed and the second abstracted by Jane Fletcher Fiske. There is so much information in these books, not only about Rhode Island people, but MA, CT, NY, the West Indies and some from several other colonies. The books give occupations, relationships (sometimes whole families), ages, locations and many other tidbits.

Subject: Books on CARR familiesDate: Sun, 16 Mar 1997 08:24:03 -0500 From: "steve & nancy weston" lsweston@ecicnet.org Date: 4/29/98 2:57:30 PM Eastern Daylight Time From: lsweston@netusa1.net (Lonnie S. Weston) I have the following book on Kerr: The Kerr Clan of New Jersey ; Beginning with Walter Ker of Freehold and including Other Related Lines;By William C. Armstrong; The Shawver Publishing Co., Morrison, IL;1931; Reprint 1980 by The Bookmark; PO Box 74; Knightstown, IN 46148 My lines include the spelling Kerr, Karr, and Carr but I did not find any connection in this book. It is a hard book to scan because it doesn't have an index but will be glad to attempt look-ups for anyone interested. Nancy Weston lsweston@ecicnet.org

Subject: FREE Genealogy Tips Online! Date: Thu, 18 Mar 1999 01:07:33 -0800 From: "Shirley" kworth@pacifier.com Looking for genealogy charts, ancestor charts, Soundex cards, definitions, old time occupations illnesses, and more? Check out this web site: http://www.genrecords.com/ shirley

How to Figure Birthdates
From "Compendium of Historical Sources" by Ronald Bremer

Often tombstones have a notation such as: "Died 15 June 1872, Aged 77 years, 10 months, 3 days." How do you determine the correct birthdate?

First of all, make the sequence read days, months, years: thus 15-6-1872 minus 3-10-77.

Since the 10th month cannot be subtracted from the sixth, borrow 12 months from the year of death, making the year 1871 and the month 18. (If you borrow from the month to make days, borrow 30 days, even though the month might have 31.)

The equation now looks like: 15-18-1871 minus 3-10-77.

Begin the calculations on the right hand side. Therefore, 77 years from 1871 means that the person was born in 1794.

Subtracting 10 months from 18 gives you eight months, or August. So the correct date of birth was 12 August 1794.

True or False? A Census is a Head Count...
Contributed by Donna Potter Phillips

Ready to use the US censuses in your family history research? Do you understand what information is contained in these records, and how to find and use them?

Here's a True-or-False quiz to test your knowledge.

1. For genealogy purposes, a census is a population enumeration or counting.
2. The first US census was taken in 1776
3. The census is taken every 10 years because our Constitution says to do so.
4. The first six censuses list only the names of the heads of household.
5. There are no women's names in those first six censuses.
6. The 1850 census was the first to list the entire household by name.
7. It is vital to know how state and county boundaries changed over the years.
8. The Map Guide to US Federal Censuses 1790-1920, addresses the above problem.
9. Packets are available for maps of individual states, as found in the above book.
10. Census records after 1920 are closed for 72 years due to rights of privacy.
11. The 1930 and later censuses, cannot be freely accessed by the public.
12. The 1890 census was destroyed by a fire in Washington, DC
13. All census records from 1790-1920 are available on microfilm.
14. All of these microfilms are available in your local genealogy library.
15. There is a book-form census index for all available censuses.
16. Your local genealogy collection has a complete set of these indexes.
17. Your local Family History Center can order in any census film you need.
18. Census Day, or the day when enumerators could begin their work, is important.
19. Using the Soundex, when available, is the right thing to do.
20. The Soundex is by sound of surname index.
21. A Soundex Code for any surname is a letter followed by four numbers.
22. A Soundex Index exists for the complete 1880, 1900, 1910, and 1920 censuses.
23. You should try to locate your ancestor on every census taken during his or her life.
24. It is important to note your ancestor's neighbors.
25. You should photocopy the census information you find.
26. US censuses are the most important genealogical tool available.
27. You can use census records in your local genealogy library, Family History Census, National Archives, or, you can borrow them from commercial companies delivered to your home. So, how did you do?
All answers are True except for:
2. The first federal census was taken in 1790 NOT 1776.
5. There are women's names listed IF they were the head of the family.
14. This depends on your local library.
15. NO!!!!
16. False
21. A Soundex Code for any surname is a letter followed by THREE numbers.
Several sources to improve your understanding of how to use the US censuses are:
"The Source," by Szucs and Luebking, 1996
"The Map Guide to the Federal Census, 1790-1920," by William Dollarhide "Guide to Genealogical Research in the National Archives" by the Archives.
Ms. Potter writes a  column for The Spokesman-Review. Her web site is a must see for Potter Researchers at: http://www.screensaves.com/potter.htm
She is the past president of the  Eastern Washington Genealogical Society,  past vice president of  the Washington State Genealogical Society and she teaches at the local community college.
Her current brick wall is: Phillips in GA, 1780-1860, with affiliated lines: Story, Stout, Veazey, Hunton, Cox, Vickers

Dating Old Photos
Contributed by Dave Rozzana
Classy Image Restorations, Portraiture & Imaging 

By determining the type of photographic technique used to make your old family photos, it's possible to date, with reasonable accuracy, the date the original was created.

Following are the most common photographic processes. With this information, see if you can narrow-down the age of the photograph.

DAGUERREOTYPE (1839 - 1870, approx.) The case resembled a double frame. Very decorative. The photo image is on a silver clad copper sheet which is attached to a sheet of glass by a foil-like brass decorative frame. This sealed packet was then force-fit into a special wood case and was often padded with velvet or silk. Many times, the silver image tarnishes with silver sulfide in the same way as silverware. The cost $5.00 (more than a weeks pay for most people).

CALOTYPE (1845 - 1855, approx.). The first photographs on paper. A two-step process. The first step was to make a negative image on a light-sensitive paper. Step two was to make a contact [print] with a second sheet of sensitized paper to make a positive print. Calotypes were never widely popular, and most of those surviving are in museums. Apparently Talbot (the inventor) did not fully realize the importance of washing his prints long enough to remove all the residual chemicals, or perhaps his fixing was inadequate. Either fault leads to the same result fading image, discoloration, etc. These defects are now noticeable in many calotypes, some of which are today little more than pale yellow ghosts.

AMBROTYPE (1854 to the end of the Civil War) The ambrotype is a thin negative image on glass made to appear as a positive by showing it against a black background. Similar to daguerreotype in assembly of parts 1- Outer protective case. 2- Backing of black paper, cloth, or metal. 3- The on-glass-image, emulsion to the front and black varnish on the back. 4- Brass die cut frame 5- Gilt border of thin brass to edge wrap the frame, glass, and backing. It was common for the ambrotype to be colored. Suggestions of rouge cheeks or lips suggested a person of substance. Buttons, watch chains, pendants, broaches were often tinted with color.

Disadvantages of ambrotypes
1. A very slow (up to 20 sec.) exposure, compared to 2 sec. for a daguerreotype.
2. The glass was very fragile.
It couldn't withstand travel or being carried in a locket as a daguerreotype could. Advantage of the Ambrotypes Price. It could be sold profitably at a low price, approx. 25 cents. The cost of the ambrotype was less than half of the daguerreotype.

THE TINTYPE (1856 to W.W.II) "The penny picture that elected a president". Price- sold for a penny or less, making photography universally available. The cost of an image at the time the process became obsolete was about 25 cents.

Advantages
1. Lighter and less costly to manufacture.
2. Camera was lighter and easier to handle.
3. Wouldn't shatter as a glass image photo would.
4. Could be colored or tinted.

As the public sought lower prices, the cases (which cost more than the finished photographs) were eliminated. In their place, paper folders of the size of the then popular card photographs were used for protection.

Instead of a glass cover, the photographer covered the tintype with a quick varnish to protect any tints or colors added to cheeks, lips, jewelry or buttons.

Popularity The tintype was very popular during the Civil War because every soldier wanted to send a picture of himself with his rifle and sword home.

They could be mailed home safely without fear of shattering.

The tintype actually does not contain any tin, but is made of thin black iron. It is sometimes confused with ambrotypes and daguerreotypes, but is easily distinguishable from them by the fact that a tintype attracts a small magnet.

DATING THE TINTYPES

Introduction 1856 - 1860. The earliest tintypes were on heavy metal (0.017 inches thick) that was never again used. They are stamped "Neff's Melainotype Pat 19 Feb 56" along one edge.

Many are found in gilt frames or in the leather or plastic (thermomolded) cases of the earliest ambrotypes. Size range from one-sixth plate to full plate.

Civil War Period 1861 - 1865. Tintypes of this time are primarily one-sixth and one-fourth plate and are often datable by the Potter's Patent paper holders, adorned with patriotic stars and emblems, that were introduced during the period.

After 1863 the paper holders were embossed rather than printed. Uncased tintypes have been found with canceled tax stamps adhered to the backs.

The stamps date these photographs to the period of the Wartime Retail Tax Act, 1 Sept. 1864 to 1 Aug. 1866.

Brown Period 1870 - 1885. In 1870 the Phoenix Plate Co. began making plates with a chocolate-tinted surface.

They created a sensation among the photographers throughout the country, and the pictures made on the chocolate-tinted surface soon became the rage.

During this period "rustic" photography also made its debut with its painted backgrounds, fake stones, wood fences and rural props. Neither the chocolate tint nor the rustic look are to be found in pre-1870 tintypes.

Gem Period 1863 - 1890. Tiny portraits, 7/8 by 1 inch, or about the size of a small postage stamp, became available with the invention of the Wing multiplying cameras.

They were popularized under the trade name Gem and the Gem Galleries offered the tiny likeness at what proved to be the lowest prices in studio history.

Gem Galleries flourished until about 1890, at which time the invention of roll film and family cameras made possible larger images at modest cost. It was no longer necessary to visit a studio that specialized in the tiny likeness.

Gem portraits were commonly stored in special albums with provision for a single portrait per page. Slightly larger versions also existed. Some Gems were cut to fit lockets, cufflinks, tie pins, rings and even garter clasps.

Carnival Period 1875 - 1930. Itinerant photographers frequently brought the tintype to public gatherings, such as fairs and carnivals. They came equipped with painted backdrops of Niagara Falls, a beach, a boat, and other novelty props for comic portraits.

Postmortems.
In the nineteenth century it was common to request a photographer to make a deathbed portrait of a loved one.

THE CABINET CARD (approx. 1866 - 1906).
A card stock product, nearly four times the size of previous photographs on card stock. The larger size created new problems of photographic quality. Flaws that were not obvious in the smaller cards now became very visible. This gave rise to a new skill of photo retoucher.

Success in retouching led to innovations in the darkroom and at the camera. Diffusion of the image reduced the need for retouching. This led to verbal skirmishes between photographers who insisted in "truth in photography". Opponents called retouching degenerating, demoralizing, and untruthful practices. Cabinet cards can be further dated by color of stock, borders, corners and size.

QUICK DATING GUIDE TO CABINET CARDS The earliest American-made cabinet cards have been dated only to the post- Civil War period, beginning in 1866.

Design and colors of these cards followed those of the cards of that time. Cabinet cards are rarely found after 1906.
Card Colors 1866 - 1880 White card stock of a light weight.
1880 - 1890 Different colors for face and back of mounts.
1882 - 1888 Face of buff, matte-finished, with a back of creamy-yellow, glossy.Borders 1866 - 1880 Red or gold rules, single and double lines.
1884 - 1885 Wide gold borders.
1885 - 1892 Gold beveled edges. 1889 - 1896 Rounded corner rule of single line.
1890 - 1892 Metallic green or gold impressed border.
1896 Impressed outer border, without color.Corners 1866 - 1880 Square, lightweight mount.
1880 - 1890 Square, heavy board with scalloped sides. -Photographs mounted on card stock-

The most popular mount sizes were

Carte-de-visite 4 1/4" x 2 1/2"
Cabinet card 6 1/2" x 4 1/2"
Victoria 5" x 3 1/4"
Promenade 7" x 4"
Boudoir 8 1/2" x 5 1/4"
Imperial 9 7/8" x 6 7/8"
Panel 8 1/4" x 4"
Stereograph 3" x 7"

A VISIT TO THE CEMETERY
contributed by Shirley Hornbeck
hornbeck@s-hornbeck.com
My Home Page: http://www.s-hornbeck.com
OWNER OF Rootsweb Discussion Lists for
BAKER, BERGER, HARDWICK, HETZEL, HORNBECK, MYERS
RESEARCHING
Hornbeck and Hardwick - anywhere, anytime
Berger, Benz, Myers, Hauf of Schenectady, NY
Hetzel, Giessle, McClean of Allegheny Co., PA

Here are a few tips to make your visit to that old cemetery a pleasant  experience.

You will be lucky if the cemetery is in a well-kept, suburban area, and is well documented by a local church, funeral director, or county courthouse.

Unfortunately this is usually not the case. Be sure to have a good county map and hopefully it will show locations of cemeteries.

  Marriage, Birth, and Death certificates should be consulted first. These will pinpoint your ancestors in time, as well as provide you with the proper names. The locations listed on these records may assist you in finding the place that they lived and possibly where they died.

Church records and obituaries may be your best bet for finding burial sites for your ancestors. Sometimes funeral directors may also be able to provide you with burial information.

Deeds and Grants should be checked. The GRANTEE index at the Local County Courthouse will be invaluable for determining places of residence as well as Probate records.

You may also find a plat map of the cemetery at the County Courthouse or a local historical society. These plats are drawings of the cemetery, much like a floor lan of a house, that indicates not only who is buried in the cemetery, but the exact gravesite within the cemetery.

When searching for the cemetery that contains the remains of your relatives, remember that most people were buried within 5 miles of their homes.

Prior to 1850, particularly in rural areas, many people were buried in small, privately maintained cemeteries, located on the family property or in cemeteries associated with the church of their particular faith.

If the cemetery is still maintained, you should contact the caretaker, church secretary or pastor, or other official before you disturb any plantings, dig away dirt or grass from around a head or footstone or attempt to lift fallen stones.

Before you go trekking into the woods, you need to be properly prepared for the excursion. Build yourself a "Cemetery Kit" and consider first protecting yourself. You need to wear clothing appropriate for the terrain and weather that you will be facing.

Wear protective clothing (jeans or work pants, and a flannel shirt are advisable). It may be hot out, but don't be tempted to try to make your way through heavy overgrowth wearing shorts and a "T" shirt. A wide-brim hat can be a lifesaver on a hot sunny day. Be sure you have good walking shoes or boots and thick socks. Don't wear thongs, sandals or canvas.

Make sure you have plenty of drinking water and perhaps some snack foods. You would also be well advised to take enough water to enable you to wash off your arms, legs and face once you return to your car.

Use plenty of insect repellant on your shoes, socks, and pants legs and consider treating your skin with repellant. Be sure to bring a small First Aid Kit and possibly a Snake Bite Kit. First Aid Kits for campers will be light and compact and probably available at most department stores or sporting goods stores.

Don't forget the sunscreen blocker cream or lotion. Beware of poison ivy or poison oak. The other caution is yellow jackets and bees. They are attracted to the sugar in open cans of soda and half eaten fruit. It is especially painful to take a swallow of soda pop and find that a yellow jacket was drinking in the can and is now in your mouth.

A few tools will also come in handy. In areas that are particularly wild or overgrown, a machete will just about be a necessity. You will need something to break a trail through dense brush.

You also need to take a small set of hand garden tools including a small garden shovel and hand held hoe. The two tools will be needed to clear grass and dirt away from headstones and footstones that may have sunk.

And lastly you should take a small pry bar. You will find that some headstones may have fallen over and if lying face down will have to be turned. A pry bar will help you do this. Include a pair of heavy canvas gardening gloves in your kit. Another good idea for the tool kit is a four-foot rod of reinforcing bar (rebar) used for probing for sunken headstones.

Assuming that no plat map was available to lead you to the exact site, you will have to walk up and down the row of graves, examining each stone.

At cemeteries where woods closely bound the cemetery, be sure to go a bit into the trees in each direction to be sure that you have found all of the gravesites. Look for fences, stone walls, or corner stones that may mark the boundaries of the cemetery.

You may want to bring some graph paper along to diagram the layout of the area where your ancestors are buried. This will help to remember where the graves were. Be sure to write down any fixed objects that will help locate the grave and the drives and also include compass directions (N, S, E, W).

A great way to save your memories of that visit is with a video camera. Take extra batteries and extra videotapes with you. Video taping creates a record of the condition of the tombstones at the time you visited. Some tombstones may not be readable in five or ten years but the videotape will always be there. Why not do a test taping at a local cemetery to develop a technique before you embark on your trip to that distant cemetery.

If you don't have a video camera, take along your tape recorder and a couple of cameras instead. A tip for photographers is to bring a roll of aluminum foil with you and set it up to reflect the sunlight onto or away from a poorly lit stone - or better yet - use a large mirror.

Take along lots of film and have one of the cameras loaded with black and white film. Take pictures with both cameras in case one doesn't come out.

Hopefully one of them will have a long cable release or take along a friend to help you. A tripod would be most helpful. Once you set up your camera and focus as best you can, use the mirror to reflect light onto the stone and take your pictures from different angles with the mirror placed in different locations.

You should definitely make a written record of what is inscribed on the headstone and the footstone if there is one as photographs will often fail to pickup all of the inscriptions on the stone.

Whether you take photographs, rubbings, or both, you may need to clean the stone first. You can try a block of Styrofoam to clean off some of the lichen and soil. If will not damage the stone and it leaves a certain amount in the grooves making the stone easier to read. You should not scrub away all of the lichen as lichen will actually help to protect the stone.

When cleaning a stone, remember that you must not cause any more damage than is already there. Most accumulated dirt and debris can be removed with a brush. Select a brush that is soft enough to not damage the stone but strong enough to remove clods of dirt.

Or use your garden tools to remove grass and dirt from the base of the stone until all of the inscription is revealed. Don't dig farther than necessary as you don't want to cause the stone to topple over. You may need to use some water with a solution of GENTLE soap to get dirt out of the inscriptions. Inverted carvings can be made to stand out better by filling them with shaving cream - although there is some controversy about this method and some say it may cause damage to the stone. If you use it, remove excess cream before you leave.

Another method - place a soaking wet lightweight piece of white cloth flat on the stone - "ironing" it with the fingers. The words will show up, especially if incised. It is also safe to use chalk or mud.

Rubbings are perhaps the most popular way to record headstones. There are many techniques for making rubbings and many materials that can be used. Make some trips to a local cemetery and practice making rubbings using different materials and techniques until you are happy with your results before you make a potentially expensive trip to a remote cemetery. Take something to sit on, especially if there are chiggers around, or use a small stool if your knees are stiff.

Many types of paper can be used to take the rubbing on, including newsprint, tracing paper, architects paper, shelf paper, or pellon. You can purchase pellon at just about any fabric or craft shop and other papers will be available at most art supply stores.

You are going to need some medium to transfer the rubbing. There are many things you can use; crayon, graphite, charcoal and boot wax are a few of the choices. Bootwax on the pellon makes an attractive rubbing, and graphite or charcoal on newsprint is another good selection. You can get boot wax at most shoe repair shops and sticks of charcoal and graphite are available at art supply stores. Graphite sticks are often available in several colors and other drawing sticks are also available.

You will need some tape to hold the paper in place on the stone while you make the rubbing. Freezer or masking tape doesn't leave a lot of residue when you remove it from the stone and it will also stick to a damp stone.

Cut a piece of your material (paper or  pellon, etc.) approximately the same size as the stone and secure it tightly across the surface of the stone using the tape. Begin rubbing at the upper left corner of the stone and work across and down. Rub in a diagonal direction as rubbing straight up and down or side to side will tend to stretch the paper and cause it to tear or make a distorted image. Whatever you have chosen to make the rubbing with, use a broad side or edge (several inches long) to rub with. You do not need to rub hard but rubbing too gently will cause you to lose the detail. Be sure that you are happy with your results before you remove the paper and that all lettering is legible.

Once you remove the paper don't try to replace it in the same location. When you are done with the rubbing remove it carefully from the stone, and lay it flat. Remove all tape and residue from the stone.

You should now "fix" the rubbing. If you are using charcoal, or graphite the image can be easily fixed with either hair spray or a commercial fixative available at the art supply store. Other mediums may need the commercial fixative or some other special treatment. When spraying the fixative do not spray it on the stone. Use a gentle side to side sweeping motion, and do not apply it too heavily. The fixative will usually cause your rubbing to darken. Follow the instructions on the bottle or can.

I store my rubbings in tubes such as from wrapping paper. They are particularly good for this but you can buy mailing tubes commercially if you like.

Cemetery rubbings are fun to do. They can be mounted or framed and make an interesting conversation piece. The rubbings can be stapled to a couple of dowels or matted and framed. They are particularly interesting if you use more than one color in your rubbing.

The Oldstone Enterprises, 77 Summer Street, Boston, Mass. 01110 sells a kit with directions for making rubbings of gravestones.
Their materials may also be purchased from the Hearthstone Bookshop, 8405-H Richmond Highway, Alexandria, Va. 22309.

The paper you want to use is sometimes referred to as "synthetic rice paper" or "print makers paper". Anything that does not tear easily will probably do. You may also use the non-woven interfacing or pattern materials that are sold at dress fabric stores, such as PELLON (non-fusible variety).

Oldstone sells a crayon that is about the size and shape of a bar of hand soap. Carpenter's crayon or Lumberman's crayon may also be used, or a crayon from the thick box of crayolas would do. If you find the right kind of paper, no spray or protective materials need be used.

A "leave-behind" might be several miniature pedigree charts in a small glass jar with a tight-fitting lid. I use a copy machine that reduces a 4-generation pedigree chart to index card size. Be sure your name and address are on each one either with a stamp or a sticker or type it on the back. Put a few of these in a jar and leave it by the headstone.

Be sure to clean up the site before you leave. Once you get back to your car rinse off your arms and legs using either water or a gentle antiseptic. If you have ever had chigger bites you will understand why this is advisable. Once back to the hotel or your home, be sure to wash thoroughly and apply astringent all over. Be careful of tics that you may pick up in the woods.

From: "Ellen Bisson"
thebissons@worldnet.att.net
Date: Tue, 25 Aug 1998 00:15:23 -0500

NAMING TRADITIONS

1st son = father's father
2nd. son = mother's father
3rd son = father v 4th son = father's 2nd oldest brother or mother's oldest brother
1st daughter = mother's mother
2nd daughter = father's mother
3rd daughter = mother
4th daughter = mother's oldest sister
5th daughter = mother's 2nd oldest sister or father's oldest sister

Regards, Ellen

Glossary of Occupations
by Daniel H. Burrows

Accomptant	Accountant
Almoner	Giver of charity to the needy
Amanuensis	Secretary or stenographer
Artificer	A soldier mechanic who does repairs
Bailie	Bailiff
Baxter	Baker
Bluestocking	Female writer
Boniface	Keeper of an inn
Brazier	One who works with brass
Brewster	Beer manufacturer
Brightsmith	Metal Worker
Burgonmaster	Mayor
Caulker	One who filled up cracks (in ships or windows) or seems to make them watertight by using tar or oakum-hemp fiber produced by taking old ropes apart
Chaisemaker	Carriage maker
Chandler	Dealer or trader; one who makes or sells candles; retailer of groceries
Chiffonnier	Wig maker
Clark	Clerk
Clerk	Clergyman cleric
Clicker	The servant of a salesman who stood at the door to invite customers; one who received the matter in the galley from the compositors and arranged it in due form ready for printing; one who makes eyelet holes in boots using a machine which clicked.
Cohen	Priest
Collier	Coal miner
Colporteur	Peddler of books
Cooper	One who makes or repairs vessels made of staves & hoops such as casks barrels tubs etc.
Cordwainer	Shoemaker originally any leather worker using leather from Cordova/Cordoba in Spain
Costermonger	Peddler of fruits and vegetables
Crocker	Potter
Crowner	Coroner
Currier	One who dresses the coat of a horse with a curry
comb	one who tanned leather by incorporating oil or grease
Docker	Stevedore dock worker who loads and unloads cargo
Dowser	One who finds water using a rod or witching stick
Draper	A dealer in dry goods
Drayman	One who drives a long strong cart without fixed sides for carrying heavy loads
Dresser	A surgeon's assistant in a hospital
Drover	One who drives cattle sheep etc. to market; a dealer in cattle
Duffer	Peddler
Factor	Agent commission merchant; one who acts or transacts business for another; Scottish steward or bailiff of an estate
Farrier	A blacksmith one who shoes horses
Faulkner	Falconer
Fell monger	One who removes hair or wool from hides in preparation for leather making
Fletcher	One who made bows and arrows
Fuller	One who fulls cloth; one who shrinks and thickens woolen cloth by moistening heating and pressing; one who cleans and finishes cloth
Gaoler	A keeper of the goal a jailer
Glazier	Window glassman
Hacker	Maker of hoes
Hatcheler	One who combed out or carded flax
Haymonger	Dealer in hay
Hayward	Keeper of fences
Higgler	Itinerant peddler
Hillier	Roof tiler
Hind	A farm laborer
Hoslter	A groom who took care of horses often at an inn
Hooker	Reaper
Hooper	One who made hoops for casks and barrels
Huckster	Sells small wares
Husbandman	A farmer who cultivated the land
Jagger	Fish peddler
Journeyman	One who had served his apprenticeship and mastered his craft not bound to serve a master but hired by the day
Joyner/Joiner	A skilled carpenter
Keeler	Bargeman
Kempster	Wool comber
Lardner	Keeper of the cupboard
Lavender	Washer woman
Lederer	Leather maker
Leech	Physician
Longshoreman	Stevedore
Lormer	Maker of horse gear
Malender	Farmer
Maltster	Brewer
Manciple	A steward
Mason	Bricklayer
Mintmaster	One who issued local currency
Monger	Seller of goods (ale fish)
Muleskinner	Teamster
Neatherder	Herds cows
Ordinary Keeper	Innkeeper with fixed prices
Pattern Maker	A maker of a clog shod with an iron ring. A clog was a wooden pole with a pattern cut into the end
Peregrinator	Itinerant wanderer
Peruker	A wig maker
Pettifogger	A shyster lawyer
Pigman	Crockery dealer
Plumber	One who applied sheet lead for roofing and set lead frames for plain or stained glass windows.
Porter	Door keeper
Puddler	Wrought iron worker
Quarrier	Quarry worker
Rigger	Hoist tackle worker
Ripper	Seller of fish
Roper	Maker of rope or nets
Saddler	One who makes repairs or sells saddles or other frnishings for horses
Sawbones	Physician
Sawyer	One who saws; carpenter
Schumacker	Shoemaker
Scribler	A minor or worthless author
Scrivener	Professional or public copyist or writer; notary public
Scrutiner	Election judge
Shrieve	Sheriff
Slater	Roofer
Slopseller	Seller of ready-made clothes in a slop shop
Snobscat/Snob	One who repaired shoes
Sorter	Tailor
Spinster	A woman who spins or an unmarried woman
Spurrer	Maker of spurs
Squire	Country gentleman; farm owner; justice of peace
Stuff gown	Junior barrister
Stuff gownsman	Junior barrister
Supercargo	Officer on merchant ship who is in charge of cargo and the commercial concerns of the ship
Tanner	One who tans (cures) animal hides into leather
Tapley	One who puts the tap in an ale cask
Tasker	Reaper
Teamster	One who drives a team for hauling
Thatcher	Roofer
Tide waiter	Customs inspector
Tinker	An itinerant tin pot and pan seller and repairman
Tipstaff	Policeman
Travers	Toll bridge collection
Tucker	Cleaner of cloth goods
Turner	A person who turns wood on a lathe into spindles
Victualer	A tavern keeper or one who provides an army navy or ship with food supplies
Vulcan	Blacksmith
Wagoner	Teamster not for hire
Wainwright	Wagon maker
Waiter	Customs officer or tide waiter; one who waited on the tide to collect duty on goods brought in
Waterman	Boatman who plies for hire
Webster	Operator of looms
Wharfinger	Owner of a wharf
Wheelwright	One who made or repaired wheels; wheeled carriages etc.
Whitesmith	Tinsmith; worker of iron who finishes or polishes the work
Whitewing	Street sweeper
Whitster	Bleach of cloth
Wright	Workman especially a construction worker
Yeoman	Farmer who owns his own land
-0-
Regards, Ellen Bisson mailto:thebissons@worldnet.att.net

Protecting mementos
By Denise Cross

Milk of Magnesia? -a bit messy and a soak in liquid for that long could disintegrate an old clipping. (Note: The original posting had a suggestion about preserving clippings in an MOM soak.)

There are 2 excellent spray products on the market. Bookkeeper and Wei To Sprays. University Products (800-628-1912) and Light Impressions carry them (www.lightimpressionsdirect.com). Just spray on and let dry.

Lamination is ok...but it is actually a mixed bag. Your lamination film and adhesive MUST be free of anything that will contribute to yellowing.

The item cannot "breathe" in this environment and if the chemicals present are destructive over time, the item will yellow badly.

It won't crumble because of the support from the laminate, but it can get hard to read. I've seen some laminated newsprint stay relatively fresh and some turn brown.

A better option (and the one archives use) is micro-encapsulation. Using sheets of mylar and acidfree/archival quality double sided adhesive, you sandwich the item between two sheets and seal all around the edge (leaving a tiny gap for "breathing").

Backing the document with a buffered sheet of lignin free paper or treating with a spray above will help arrest the deterioration.

The item itself is not adheared in anyway, so the mylar can be cut open to remove it at a future date. The mylar lends great support to the paper as well. The mylar sheets come in many sizes, small sheets for cutting to preserve clippings to big enough to encapsulate broadsides.

Copying onto acid free, lignin free paper is the way to go for long term preservation of the info.

Ellen's note: I have purchased acid-free album sheets, clear mylar protectors and archival glue from a catalog company called Exposures in Oshkosh, WI (1 800 572-5750).

The glue is abt $7.95 per tube and it's a small tube. The glue is sort of rubbery and you can actually remove a photo to replace it or move, provided it isn't fragile. You would not be able to move a newspaper clipping, however.

On another list, I believe someone also said acid free album sheets were available a Wal-Mart.